Japanese Mythology. The commentary lacks depth but as a preliminary guide may be most helpful.

A brief discussion of the aboriginal people of Japan believed to be possibly descended from a caucasoid people that once lived in northern Asia.

This is Chad Hansen's Chinese philosophy homepage. This page includes, among others, links to Mo-Tzu & his teachings & the Later Mohists (or Dialectical Mohists), & to Legalism. Mo-Tzu, considered by Hansen as China's first true philosopher, is known for his utilitarianism, namely, what is right is determined by what is best for the majority. In Chad's view both Confucianism & Taoism owe in large measure their more mature forms to Mo-Tzu. The representatives of Legalism here are Shang Yang (Lord Shang), and, perhaps controversially, Shen Buhai. Chad Hansen teaches philosophy at the University of Hong Kong.

'The Changing Face of Japanese Folk Beliefs', by Norman Havers of Kokugakuin University. Havens offers not so much a study of the folk beliefs themselves, as a discussion of what constitutes such beliefs, along with a survey of Japanese attitudes towards them. He also compares & distinguishes between earlier or rural folk beliefs & those of urban cultures. We see here that amongst Japanese folklorists, there emerged the view that folk religion signified the fundamental core of Japanese identity, and for this reason it should be preserved. In respect of the comparison between rural & urban folk beliefs, Havers considers, for example, the effect upon traditional folk culture of the modern means of transmitting & preserving knowledge & beliefs. He also makes some reference to the possible threat to folk religion's survival of its exploitation as a commodity.

'Recent Trends in the Study of Japanese New Religions', by Inoue Nobutaka of Kokugakuin University. This discussion is divided into three main sections: (i) 'The Concept of New Religions'; (ii) Studies of New Religions in the Post-War Period'; & (iii) 'Recent Trends in the New Religions'. Section (i) includes a consideration of the currently suggested periods for the emergence of the new religions, & their strengths & weaknesses, as well as a discussion of the problem of what kind of movements should constitute new religions. How to distinguish new religions from renewal movements or folk religion? Section (ii) charts the changing face of the study of new religions, noting its rapid growth in the 1970's. It also discusses the interesting fact that a high number of new religions in Japan are founded or currently lead by women. Section (iii) considers the problematic status of the so-called "new new religions".

H. Neill Macfarland considers the role of Buddhism, Shinto, Christianity, folk religion, & New Religions, in the lives of the Japanese people. Whilst by western norms of religiosity the Japanese may not appear especially religious, it is, says Macfarland, "…a rare Japanese who has absolutely no involvement with either Shinto or Buddhism, or even with both." The Japanese Christian community is also said to have an effective presence, & folk religion also still flourishes on certain levels of society, especially in rural areas. Some new religions too are said to have achieved sufficient stability for their long-term viability to be assured. Macfarland's discussion concludes with the view that religion in Japan is a "…pervasive and definitive dimension of Japanese life."

'The Life of a Shamaness: Scenes From the Shamanism of North-eastern Japan', by Kawamura Kunimitsu of Tenri University, 1984. This article focuses upon the ogamisama group of blind shamanesses, their process of shamanic initiation, & in turn the mechanisms by which shamans are produced within the local community. Twelve shamanesses were interviewed, & in section 1 (following the Intro.) the accounts of two of these are given to illustrate a four-stage process common to all of these. It is explained in section 2 that a blind girl becomes a medium shamaness (ogamisama) out of her parents' fear for how she will make a living. Becoming an ogamisama is the means by which a young blind woman can become incorporated into the local community. It is also explained that the community itself has a means of providing for the girl's training as ogamisama. Her final acceptance as a full member of that community is central to her process of initiation.

'The Fall of Renmonkyo, and its Place in the History of Meiji-Period Religions', by Takeda Dosho of Taisho University. Established by Shimamura Mitsu in 1883, Renmonkyo attracted up to 900,000 followers within a decade, making it one of the largest of the new religions. Today, however, it is extinct, & virtually unknown. Takeda considers the reasons for its remarkable growth & its status within the religious history of the Meiji period (1868-1912).

'The Origin of Rites of Worship Within the Local Community', by Harada Toshiaki (Japan). This discussion focuses principally upon the concept of the ujigami or 'clan deities'. It is argued that whilst the ujigami is now associated with ancestor worship, this was not always so. The ujigami came to be viewed as the very essence of the local community (buraku), and for the clan lineage this meant its ancestors; specifically, this meant its "great ancestor of origins". This laid the foundations for a kind of ancestor worship, a '"great founder"' worship, which was quite different from the later kind of ancestor worship which revered each generation of ancestors. (The letter 'G' in green throughout the text is a link to a glossary).